.. Cholinergic system There is selleck Vandetanib considerable evidence for a presynaptic

cholinergic deficit during aging in many brain regions based on reductions in the enzyme responsible for the synthesis of acetylcholine, choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), in cortex and striatum (as reviewed Palmer and DeKosky52) and in acetylcholine synthesis in temporal cortex.53 Furthermore, there arc decreases with age in both muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors.54 Using proton magnetic spectroscopy, Cohen et al55 demonstrated reductions in the uptake of circulating choline with advancing age. Selective imaging selleck Carfilzomib ligands Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for the cholinergic system have proved elusive. However, PET studies with the relatively nonselective cholinergic receptor ligands [11C]benztropine, [11C]tropanyl benzilatc, and [11C]-N-methylpiperidyl bcnzilate (NMPB) have supported in vivo losses in muscarinic receptor density with age, although they disagree on the magnitude of the reductions.56-58 Also, modest reductions in cholinergic terminal density Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with aging have been demonstrated by SPECT imaging of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter [123I]iodobenzovesamicol.59 Monoaminergic systems There is wide variation in the response of monoaminergic systems to aging. While postmortem studies

show considerable loss of markers of the 5-HT system (5-HT, 5-HT1A, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and 5-HT2A receptors), particularly in the neocortex, and of dopaminergic markers (dopamine, major metabolites, transporter, and receptors) in the striatum, there is little evidence of change outside those regions or in markers of the noradrenergic system.52 The development, of selective imaging ligands for the 5-HT and dopamine binding sites has allowed Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical these systems to be further studied in humans in vivo. PET studies confirm substantial aging reductions in specific

binding to dopamine D1 and D2 receptors.47,48,60 Further, alterations in cognition and coordination of motor activity that frequently accompany aging have been shown to correlate with PET measures of dopamine receptor function.61 Aging losses of presynaptic dopamine Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical transporter sites have also been demonstrated with PET and SPECT, suggesting that age affects the integrity of dopaminergic neuronal pathways.62-65 Recently developed PET ligands for several 5-HT receptor subtypes and the 5-HT transporter GSK-3 have facilitated in vivo imaging of this important neurotransmitter system, which is central to mood and sleep regulation.66,67 Marked widespread aging reductions in binding of the pharmacologically well-characterized 5-HT2A receptor using [18F]altanserin and [18F]setoperone have been shown by several investigators.49,50,68 The magnitude of the inverse relationship between age and 5-HT2A receptor binding supports the hypothesis that loss of serotonergic function in aging may contribute to the susceptibility of the elderly to alterations in mood and 5-HT-mcdiated behaviors.