[5] Standard fluorescence microscopy using a good quality 60× or 100× oil immersion objective lens is adequate for visualizing immunolabelled primary cilia, ZD1839 although confocal microscopy may offer clearer images and allow scope for three dimensional reconstruction. Although most renal epithelial cells bear a cilium, not every section of a cell will contain the cilium. However, a longitudinal section through the

lumen of a tubule or duct will typically contain several primary cilia. The length of primary cilia is a feature that has been linked to their sensory sensitivity with regard to flow.[63-65] The length of primary cilia labelled with anti-tubulin can be measured for cultured cells or kidney sections using image analysis software such as AnalySIS (Olympus), IMARIS (Bitplane) or Image J.[5, 66] Several independent replicates should generally be examined for each time point or treatment, and multiple spatially separated examples of cilia obtained from each replicate to ensure results are representative. It is possible to obtain repeated measurements of average primary cilium length from the same kidney in the case of clinical renal biopsy series.[5] Cilia in preparations of cultured cells usually lie

flat and their full extent is easily visualized and measured.[47] In kidney sections, cilia are not uniformally oriented and longer examples may not be completely contained in one section or plane of focus. Images of cilia oriented parallel to the plane of from focus are collected from several tubules or ducts of each kidney. This approach undoubtedly biases against examples lambrolizumab of longer cilia that are less likely to be contained in a single section or plane of focus, and underestimates cilium length to some degree. However, this method has successfully been

used to detect increases in renal primary cilium length after renal injury in human patients and mouse models.[5, 10, 11] The use of more sophisticated fluorescence imaging approaches for accurately reconstructing and measuring the length of primary cilia has recently been discussed.[67] These strategies accurately measure primary cilia using three dimensional reconstruction from confocal optical sections and involve correction for distortion that occurs along the Z axis. This allows more complete sampling of cilia, including longer examples. As the significance of primary cilia, including those of the kidney, has become apparent, the number of studies examining their properties and function has increased rapidly. Traditional electron microscopy techniques continue to make valuable contributions because of the high resolution they offer. Antibodies raised against a range of cystic kidney disease proteins and other ciliary components have revolutionized immunofluorescence analysis of renal primary cilia.