Further in

vivo experiments are needed to establish the longevity and functional activity of the mucosally-detected antibody. How mucosal immunisation primes for a systemic boost is unknown and suggests that mucosally-primed B cells may cross-over between compartments and/or that vaginally-administered antigen reaches both systemic and mucosal sites of inductive immunity. Conversely, the mechanism by which intramuscular immunisation primes antigen recognition following intravaginal exposure is not established; however, the dose and secondary signalling requirements for memory B-cell activation are less stringent than for Selleckchem PD0332991 B cell priming. Presumably, despite the systemic route of priming, at least some memory cells migrate to the female genital tract. It is also conceivable that antibody induced by intramuscular priming complexes to vaginally applied antigen and facilitates uptake and presentation by Fc receptor-bearing APC. The enhanced immunogenicity of immune complexes in general when administered systemically is well documented and has recently been reported for HIV-1 gp120 [34]; however, there is a paucity of data regarding mucosal routes [35]. The lack of

vaginal boosting of serum responses in macaques that had received 3 intramuscular immunisations may simply be a saturation effect; however, the lack of local antibody boosting was disappointing and suggests that there may be downmodulation of local memory in the presence of high levels of systemic immunity. Taken together, the results suggest that the concentration of gp140 used for intravaginal immunisation may have been below the click here threshold required for efficient stimulation of an antibody response de novo from the precursor B-cell pool and at the threshold for boosting a memory response. It would now be interesting to determine

if higher doses of non-adjuvanted gp140 would be more effective. Furthermore, although formulating gp140 in rheologically structured Modulators vehicles designed to enhance antigen retention in the vaginal vault appeared to offer little advantage over Carbopol formulation in rabbits [36] such vehicles may be more beneficial in non-human primates and humans, where access to the immune system via this route may be more restricted. The mechanisms responsible Oxalosuccinic acid for antibody appearance in cervical and vaginal fluids are yet to be fully defined. Some antibody is derived from plasma by transudation and some may be produced locally. Indeed, testing of secretions from 6 macaques, where volume allowed, revealed IgA anti-gp140 containing secretory component (data not shown). For technical reasons it was not possible to directly compare total and specific IgG and IgA levels however others have reported that, as in women [37], IgG is the predominant immunoglobulin in the lower female genital tract of macaques [38] and IgG as well as IgA ASC are present in macaque vaginal tissues [39].