holarctica. Although SNP loci are the most informative markers for typing of Francisella this method may have to be adapted to local strains [37, 38]. Conclusions F. tularensis seems to be a re-emerging pathogen in Germany that infects hares in many regions and causes a potential risk for exposed humans such as hunters and others who process

hares. The pathogen can easily be identified using PCR assays directly on DNA extracted from organ specimens or cultivated strains. Isolates can also be identified rapidly using MALDI-TOF MS in routine laboratories where specific PCR assays for F. tularensis are not established. To identify differences and genetic relatedness of Francisella strains, analysis of VNTR loci (Ft-M3, Ft-M6 and Ft-M24), INDELs (Ftind33, Ftind38, Ftind49, RD23) and SNPs (B.17, B.18, B.19, and B.20) was shown to be useful in this set of strains. When time and costs are limiting PF-6463922 purchase see more parameters isolates can be analysed using simplified PCR assays with a focus on genetic loci that are most likely discriminatory among strains found in a specific area. For the future whole genome sequencing using next generation sequencing is desirable and

should provide more genetic information of Francisella strains. Based on these data a more detailed view on the epidemiology of tularemia will become possible [39]. Methods Samples Organ specimens (e.g. spleen, liver, lung, and/or kidney) of European brown hares that were suspicious of tularemia were collected by local veterinary authorities in Germany since 2005 and sent for confirmatory testing to the National Reference Laboratory for Tularemia of the Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut in Jena. Francisella strains were cultivated on cysteine heart agar (Becton Dickinson GmbH, Heidelberg, Germany) Liothyronine Sodium supplemented with 10% chocolatized sheep blood and antibiotics in order to suppress the growth of contaminants. One litre of culture medium

contained 100 mg ampicillin (Sigma-Aldrich Adriamycin Chemie, Taufkirchen, Germany) and 600 000 U polymyxin B (Sigma-Aldrich Chemie). Plates were incubated at 37°C with 5% CO2 for up to 10 days. Typical colonies are grey-green, mostly confluent, glossy, and opaque. Gram staining was performed routinely and showed Gram negative coccoid bacteria. The reference strains F. tularensis subsp. tularensis (FSC 237), mediasiatica (FSC 147), and F. novicida (ATCC 15482) were obtained from the Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Munich, Germany, and F. philomiragia (DSMZ 7535) was obtained from the German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Braunschweig, Germany, respectively. Erythromycin susceptibility All F. tularensis subsp. holarctica isolates were tested for their erythromycin susceptibility using Erythromycin discs [30 μg] and M.I.C.Evaluator™ (Oxoid, Wesel, Germany) in order to discriminate the susceptible biovar I from the resistant biovar II as described previously [40].