However, a problem with upconversion nanocrystals is the lower upconversion efficiency [40]. There is a clear decrease in efficiency with decreasing size in the relevant size regime between 8 and 100 nm, which is probably related to surface effects and quenching by coupling with high-energy vibrations in molecules attached to the surface. Upconversion systems consisting of lanthanide nanocrystals of YbPO4 and LuPO4 have been demonstrated to be visible by the naked eye in transparent

solutions, however at efficiency lower than that of solid-state upconversion phosphors [27]. Other host lattices (NaXF4, X = Y, Gd, La) have been used, and co-doping with Yb3+ and Er3+, or Yb3+ and Tm3+ appeared successful, where Yb3+ acts as sensitizer. Nanocrystals of <30 nm in size, to GDC-0941 nmr prevent scattering in solution, have been prepared, and they can be easily dissolved in organic solvents forming colloidal solutions, without agglomeration. Further efficiency increase is possible by growing a shell of undoped NaYF4 around the nanocrystal; in addition, surface modification is needed to allow dissolution in water, for use in biological labeling. Porous

silicon layers are investigated for use as upconverter layers as host for rare-earth ions because these ions can easily penetrate the host due to the large surface area and porosity. A simple and low-cost dipping method has been reported [41], in which a porous silicon layer is dipped into a nitrate solution of erbium and ytterbium in ethanol (Er(NO3)3:Yb(NO3)3:C2H5OH),

which is followed by a spin-on procedure and a thermal click here activation process at 900°C. Excitation of the sample at 980 nm revealed upconversion processes as visible Thymidylate synthase and NIR photoluminescence is observed; co-doping of Yb with Er is essential, and doping only with Er shows substantial quenching effects [42]. Finally, sensitized triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA) using highly photostable metal-organic chromophores in conjunction with energetically appropriate https://www.selleckchem.com/products/LY2228820.html aromatic hydrocarbons has been shown to be another alternative upconversion system [43, 44]. This mechanism was shown to take place under ambient laboratory conditions, i.e., low-light-intensity conditions, clearly of importance for outdoor operation of solar cells. These chromophores (porphyrins in this case) can be easily incorporated in a solid polymer such that the materials can be treated as thin-film materials [45]. A problem with TTA upconverters is the spectral range. No efficient upconversion of NIR radiation at wavelengths beyond 800 nm has been reported which limits the use to wide-bandgap solar cells [37, 46]. Upconversion for solar cells Efficiency limits Upconversion in solar cells was calculated to potentially lead to a maximum conversion efficiency of 47.6% [11] for nonconcentrated sunlight using a 6,000-K blackbody spectrum in detailed-balance calculations.