This clearly explains why the distance between species cannot be measured only by sequence comparisons. Based on such calculations we can indeed conclude that we are closer to chimpanzees than to mice (we know this from other physical traits), but this does not mean that we are 98.77% chimpanzee and 80% mouse. An important message here is Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical that what counts is not the number of mutations, but where they occur – where they hit the genome. Mutations in regulatory domains are not identical, in term of consequences, to mutations in coding sequences. Their effects will vary depending

on the type of gene under their control; for example a developmental gene or a gene encoding a protein of little physiological importance, eg, eye color. Also in the case of coding sequences, some mutations can have important evolutionary consequences, as will be illustrated in the case of FoxP2, a transcription factor that Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical may have played a role in the evolution of animal behavior and INCB28060 cell line communication.12 Finally, it must be underlined that, also for coding sequences, some mutations are silent and others possibly dramatic, depending on the similarities or differences between the normal amino acid and the new Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical one

resulting from the mutation. Technically speaking, some substitutions are synonymous and others nonsynonymous. Point mutations accounting for the 1.23% difference are not the end of the story If one considers the genetic diversity of our species, and its approximate date of appearance (200 000 years ago, more or less), it can be deduced that the founding population was composed of

approximately 10 000 individuals. The fact that we have the same number of genes as the chimpanzees from whom we separated 7 million Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical years ago leads to the conclusion that mutations in regulatory domains have been decisive. For example, a mutation in a gene regulating the division of neural stem cells in a given region of the brain neuroepithelium will specifically modify the size of this region.10,13 The conclusion is evident: the famous 1.23% implies Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical sequences of considerable qualitative importance, including regulatory elements of isothipendyl developmental genes, with potentially spectacular effects on the morphology and physiology of the organisms. Most importantly, the differences are not limited to the 1.23% of point mutations, as one must add all genomic deletions and insertions, plus the duplications that modify gene dosage. Given the size of the human genome, 1.23% translates into 30 million point mutations (a number not to be underestimated), to which one should add duplications, insertions, and deletions (between man and chimpanzee, gene copy numbers differ by more than 6%). Taken together, mutations, duplications, insertions, and deletions modify the global chromatin structure, and thus the regulation of gene expression.