Transactivation of human HLA-I (HLA-A, -B, -C, -E, -F, -G) and TAP1 genes was measured by a dual luciferase assay. For this purpose, we used previously described reporter plasmids [47] encoding the firefly luciferase click here gene under control of the respective promoter elements. A549 cells were transfected with reporter plasmids (2 μg) and constitutively active

renilla luciferase vector (200 ng) as transfection control in a 24-well plate. At 24 h after transfection, cells were left uninfected or infected with HTNV (MOI = 1.5) for 1 h at 37°C. Normal culture medium was added to cells and cultures were incubated for 4 days. As a positive control, IFN-α-treated cells were used in all assays unless otherwise specified. Next cells were lysed with passive lysis buffer (Promega) for 15 min at room temperature with gentle agitation. Subsequently, reporter activity was measured by Dual-Luciferase Assay System (Promega) and a Mithras LB96V luminometer (Berthold). LightCycler qRT-PCR was performed essentially as previously described [46]. Briefly, cells were lysed with MagNA Pure lysis buffer (Roche) and mRNA was isolated with a MagNA Pure-LC device using standard protocols.

RNA was reverse-transcribed Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Library with Avian myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase and oligo (dT) primer using the First Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit from Roche. For amplification of target sequences, LightCycler Primer Sets (Search-LC) were used with LightCycler FastStart DNA Sybr Green I Kit (Roche). RNA input was normalized by the average expression Celecoxib of the housekeeping genes encoding β-actin and cyclophilin B. By plotting a known input concentration of a plasmid to the PCR cycle number at which the detected fluorescence intensity reached a fixed value, a virtual standard curve was generated. This standard curve was used to calculate transcript copy numbers. The presented relative copy numbers are mean averages of data of two independent analyses for each sample and parameter. A549 cells or Vero

E6 cells treated with IFN-α (ImmunoTools) or IFN-λ1 (R&D) for 8 h were used as a positive control. Vero E6 cells were left uninfected or infected with HTNV (MOI = 1) for 4 days or infected with VSV (MOI = 1) for 8 h. Subsequently, RNA was extracted from infected cells by using TRIzol (Sigma) following the manufacturer’s instructions. RNA was quantified by using a NanoDrop 2000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific Inc.). The RNA (1 μg/well) was reverse transfected into Vero E6 cells in a 48-well plate by using lipofectamin 2000 (Invitrogen) following the manufacturer’s instructions. Vero E6 cells were harvested 24 h after transfection and analyzed by FACS for MHC-I surface expression. For blocking innate signaling through the TBK1/IKK3 signaling axis, the chemical inhibitor BX795 (InvivoGen) was used.