glycerol, the production of 39 g milk sugar requires about 0.29–0.35 kg body mass (Eisert et al. 2013). Thus, providing for a large pup brain is one of the factors contributing to the rapid mass loss by lactating Weddell seals (ca. 1% of initial mass per day; Eisert and Oftedal 2009). The physiological consequences outlined for rapidly growing phocid pups do not apply to the same extent to otariids and odontocetes, despite presence of large brains in neonates (Table 3). Because the young of these taxa grow slowly after birth (Oftedal 1997), they partition

ingested milk protein and fat primarily into maintenance (oxidation) rather than growth (e.g., Oftedal et al. 1987), providing ample substrate for gluconeogenesis.

This has made possible the evolutionary loss Crizotinib in vitro of the enzymatic machinery see more to synthesize lactose and lactose-based oligosaccharides in otariid mammary glands (Sharp et al. 2008, Oftedal 2011). Some odontocetes also secrete milks with undetectable or trace amounts of these constituents (Ullrey et al. 1984, Urashima et al. 2002). Given the apparent metabolic cost to the mother of supporting a large brain in the suckling pup, we presume that early development of a large brain must provide some functional benefit for this species. Together with ringed and Baikal seals, Phoca hispida and P. sibirica, the Weddell seal is one of the few pinnipeds to give birth on fast ice (Lydersen and Kovacs 1999, Martinkova check details et al. 2001). Weddell seal pups

first enter the water at 7–12 d, while still bearing lanugo, before much body fat has accumulated, and when immersion in very cold (−1.8°C) water results in cooling of the body core and visible shivering (Elsner et al. 1977; Thomas and DeMaster 1983; RE and OTO, unpublished data). This is remarkable not only because Weddell seal pups are free from environmental pressures that are thought to motivate early entry into the water in other phocid pups, such as surface predation, tidal inundation, unstable pack ice, and overheating (Lydersen and Kovacs 1999), but also because early entry into the water increases risk of pup mortality. Young pups may succumb to hypothermia or drown when they unable to exit the water at steep-sided ice holes (Kaufmann et al. 1975, Thomas and DeMaster 1983, Schreer et al. 1996). Diving and navigation in the complex and potentially lethal under-ice environment of Weddell seal fast-ice colonies (Schreer et al. 1996) requires well-developed spatial memory and motor skills. We hypothesize that the period of maternal dependence (the first 40–50 d postnatum) represents a strictly limited window of opportunity for Weddell seal pups to learn under-ice navigation while diving together with their mothers (Sato et al. 2003). This need to acquire sophisticated skills in the immediate postnatal period may provide selective pressure for early brain development.

Results: The incidence cohort consisted of 254 cases with 78% males and a mean age of 65.6 years. Forty-eight percent were Caucasian, with Asians 20%, Mediterraneans 18% and Africans 10%. Cirrhosis was present in 86% of patients. Chronic HCV infection (42%)

was the commonest cause of underlying liver disease, followed by alcohol (39%), chronic HBV infection (18%), and NAFLD (12%). Overall only 14% were diagnosed by biopsy. Diagnosis of HCC outside a screening program occurred in 54%. HCC diagnosed by screening were more likely to have early stage disease (BCLC 0 to B) than those diagnosed outside a screening program (52.5% vs. 9.5%, p < 0.0001). The age-standardized incidence rates (per 100,000 Australian Standard Population) for Melbourne were 8.05 in males and 2.12 in females, compared to Victorian incidence rates in 2011 of 5.2 and 1.2, respectively

(Victorian Cancer Registry 2012). Conclusion: In the first population-based incidence Saracatinib in vitro study of HCC in Australia, we have shown that the incidence of HCC in Melbourne Selleck LDE225 is higher than previously reported in Victoria. This has important implications for the allocation of healthcare resources. Hepatitis C and alcohol are the leading causes of HCC. Tumours diagnosed within surveillance programs had earlier stage disease, suggesting that increased uptake of surveillance may improve clinical outcomes. X ZHOU,1 K SHAW,1 L ALGIE,2 J FAWCETT,2 K STUART1 1Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Australia, 2Liver Transplant Services, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Australia

Background: The Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) staging system is the most widely used treatment algorithm for Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC). Patient performance status (PS) is a key component of the revised BCLC criteria. Patients with an ECOG status of ≥1 are categorised as BCLC Stage C irrespective of tumour size and number. Other HCC staging systems place more emphasis on the characteristics of the tumour than the health status of the patient in their treatment decision making process. Aims and methods: The aim of this study was to assess the influence of PS on treatment selection and overall survival in patients with BCLC Early Stage HCC. A retrospective review was conducted of all patients with click here BCLC Early HCC who were treated with curative intent using radiofrequency ablation (RFA), surgical resection (SR) or liver transplantation (LT) at a single Australian liver transplant centre between January 2005 and June 2012. Early HCC was defined as a single tumour ≤6.5 cm or ≤3 tumours, none greater than 4.5 cm in maximum diameter with a total tumour diameter of ≤8 cm. Patients were divided into two groups based on their PS (ECOG 0–1; good performance group, ECOG ≥2 poor performance group). Demographic data, clinical and laboratory characteristics, treatment selection and overall survival were compared between the two groups.

The groups were matched for age (±6 years) and gender. Primary

outcome measures were cumulative prosthetic (both interim and definitive) BGB324 and implant survival (Kaplan-Meier product limit estimator). Secondary outcome measures were marginal bone levels at 5 years (through periapical radiographs and using the patient as unit of analysis) and the incidence of mechanical and biological complications. Differences in survival curves (log-rank test), marginal bone level (Mann-Whitney U test), and complications (chi-square test) were compared inferentially between the two groups using the patient as unit of analysis with significance level set at p ≤ 0.05. No dropouts occurred. Prosthetic survival was 100%. Five patients lost 5 implants (G1: n = 3; G2: n = 2) before 1 year, rendering an estimated cumulative survival rate of 95.5% (G1: 94.5%; G2: 96.4%; Kaplan-Meier, p = 0.645, nonsignificant). The average Idasanutlin (SD) marginal bone level was 1.56 mm (0.89) at 5 years [G1: 1.45 mm (0.77); G2: 1.67 mm (0.99); p = 0.414]. The incidence rate of mechanical complications (in both interim and definitive prostheses) was 0.16 and 0.13 for G1 and G2, respectively

(p = 0.032). The incidence rate of biological complications was 0.06 and 0.05 for G1 and G2, respectively (p = 0.669). Based on the results, rehabilitating double- or single-arch edentulous patients did selleckchem not yield significant differences on survival curves. The incidence of mechanical complications was significantly higher for double-arch rehabilitated patients but nevertheless, these mechanical complications did not affect the long-term survival of either the prostheses or the implants. “
“The aim

of this study was to evaluate the effect of incorporation of two compositions of nano-oxides on color stability of intrinsically colored maxillofacial silicone elastomer subjected to outdoor weathering. Ninety Cosmesil M511 silicone elastomer specimens were fabricated. The control group was incorporated with intrinsic coloring agents (umber, brown, yellow), group A was incorporated with intrinsic coloring agents and nanosized titanium oxide (TiO2), and group B was incorporated with intrinsic coloring agents and nanosized zinc oxide (ZnO). For outdoor weathering, specimens were mounted on a treated plywood rack, and the assembly was weathered for 6 months. A GretagMacbeth Spectrolino spectrophotometer was used to determine the CIELAB (L*a*b*) parameter before and after weathering of each specimen, and the values were noted. The color change (∆E) values were analyzed by one-way ANOVA, Tukey’s post hoc test, and paired t-test. The color change (ΔE*) for groups were control group > group A > group B. The control group (0.76 ± 0.32) and group A (0.47 ± 0.

i.e.

tissue diagnosis Temsirolimus was not possible in 12.7%. 2) The tissue diagnosis was possible 87.3% in absence of an on site cytopathologist. 3) Core tissue was obtained in 123 case of which with both the needles a positive diagnosis was obtained in 107 cases (86.9%) and 16 cases failed to revealed significant cellularity (13.1%). 4) Out of the 107 positive cases of core biopsies, the biopsies were positive in 85 cases (79.4%) with a 19G needle with failure credited to blood contamination. With a 22G needle 22 positive biopsies (20.6%) were obtained and they had less blood contamination. 5) Adenocarcinoma of the head of the pancreas was the commonest etiology in pancreatic head masses. 6) The most non conclusive cytology was in uncinate process

CCR antagonist masses (33.3%). 7) Tuberculous lymphadenopathy was the commonest etiology in lymph nodal masses. Key Word(s): 1. FNA; 2. cytopathology; 3. core tissue sampling; 4. no onsite cytopathologist Presenting Author: PANKAJ DESAI Additional Authors: MAYANK KABRAWALA Corresponding Author: PANKAJ DESAI Affiliations: Gastro Care Objective: Study from a single Tertiary care centre of proximal migration of Biliary stents. Methods of prevention and the best method of retrieval of these migrated stents. Methods: The study was divided into two phases. From 2008 to 2011 when retrospectively 1080 cases were studied in whom Biliary stents were placed. Only those cases in whom stents were placed post stone removal (7 Fr–10 cms straight) where the papilla was associated with a diverticulum and when it was not. The second group was cases of post cholecystectomy leaks or strictures (7 Fr–12 cms straight stents) with papilla with and without a diverticulum and the third group in cases with cholangitis where 10 Fr–12 cms straight stents were placed. This data showed a significant proximal migration of 7 Fr–10 cms stents and especially those associated with a peri Ampullary diverticulum. Therefore prospectively the authors changed the straight 7 Fr–10 cms stents to 7 Fr–12 cms in papilla without peri Ampullary diverticuli and

7 Fr- Double pigtail stents in papilla associated with a peri Ampullary diveticullum and 1320 case were selleck kinase inhibitor studied and data studied. Results: From 2008 to 2011 (Total 1080 cases). 702 cases stones with normal papilla (7 Fr–10 cms straight stent)- migration 36 (5.1%), 216 cases stone with papilla associated with peri Ampullary diverticulum (7 Fr–10 cms straight) migration 30 (13.9%), 50 cases of leaks with normal papilla (7 Fr–12 cms straight), migration 3 (6%), 13 cases of leak with papilla associated with peri Ampullary diverticulum (7 Fr–12 cms straight stents), migration 2 (11.5%), 99 cases with cholangitis (10 Fr–12 cms straight stent), migration 1 (1%). From 2011–2014 – (Total- 1320 cases) – 871 cases stones with normal papilla (7 Fr–12 cms straight stents), migration 27 (3.

Further studies are ongoing in special patient populations including HIV/HCV co-infected patients to increase the rate of SVR. There are still

many challenges to decrease the risk of side effects and drug–drug click here interactions. On the other hand, clinical trials are currently ongoing with antivirals belonging to newer classes with the hope of interferon-free treatment regimens and pangenotypic activities (Figure 4). Doubtless, patients with hereditary bleeding disorders should benefit from these new developments in the near future. The authors stated that they had no interests which might be perceived as posing a conflict or bias. “
“Summary.  Frequent evaluation of haemophilia treatment is necessary to improve patient care. The 2010 Practice Patterns Survey (PPS) investigated current trends in haemophilia treatment in the United States, as reported by nurses. The aim was to document practice patterns for haemophilia A and haemophilia B Survey questionnaires were sent to nurses at haemophilia treatment centres (HTCs) across the United States. Seventy-one of 126 HTCs (56%) responded to the survey. Factor dosage across treatment modalities ranged from 20 to 50 IU kg-1 for severe haemophilia A. Dosage Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor for severe haemophilia B was more variable (<40 to >100 IU kg-1). On-demand dosing regimens were

inconsistent for haemophilia A and more so for haemophilia B. Rates of adherence to prescribed treatment were similar for both haemophilia types (∼80%). The main barrier to adherence was identified as inconvenience. More bleeding episodes occurred in adults (16.6 bleeding episodes per year) with severe haemophilia A than in younger patients (11.3 bleeding episodes per year) before switching patients to prophylaxis. For both haemophilia types, most patients who switched from prophylaxis

to on-demand treatment were aged 13–24 years; these patients also had the lowest adherence (60–71%). More paediatric patients with severe haemophilia A and inhibitors (53%) received prophylactic bypassing therapy than their haemophilia B counterparts selleck chemicals (38%). Adults with severe haemophilia A faced challenges in relation to co-morbidities and long-term care. This PPS provides insights into previously unexplored aspects of haemophilia care that will serve to increase awareness and promote discussion of current issues affecting haemophilia patient care. “
“Summary.  Few data exist on the impact of age and inhibitor status on activity levels among patients with severe and moderately severe haemophilia A. The aim of this analysis was to assess the impact of age, race/ethnicity and inhibitor status on functional limitations through retrospective analysis of data from the Hemophilia and Thrombosis Research Society (HTRS) Registry.

An excellent correlation between the Architect assay and the Elecsys HBsAg II assay (Roche Diagnostics) has been demonstrated.48 Using an automated onboard dilution step, the latter has a broad linear range that covers the HBsAg levels most frequently encountered and thus reduces the

need for manual dilutions, which are potential sources of error.49 Currently, the cost of these assays is not reimbursed in many countries, and they are not commercially available in the United States, so research-only tests are the only option at present. However, this can be expected to change in the future.50 Undoubtedly, there is still more to learn about the kinetics of the HBsAg decline and the ways to best use this in practice to optimize therapy. It remains to be confirmed whether HBsAg levels can reliably ABT-263 order Obeticholic Acid in vivo predict HBeAg seroconversion or HBsAg seroclearance. Studies in regions other than Europe and Asia are needed because the HBsAg kinetics for different HBV genotypes may differ during the natural course of the disease or in response to anti-HBV therapy. The on-treatment predictive value of HBsAg quantitation also needs to be studied in a sufficiently large number of patient

with consistent time points (e.g., weeks 12 and 24 of therapy) and with the same definition of response. The optimal HBsAg cutoff with the ideal PPV and NPV also awaits clarification. Prediction models combining the quantitation of HBsAg with HBV DNA and ALT levels should also be explored. Until these issues are resolved, HBsAg quantitation will not be ready for clinical practice. Nevertheless, with the assistance of HBsAg quantitation, we may

be on our way to establishing an individualized approach that might enable us to tailor anti-HBV treatments. The author thanks Karen Searle (Elements Communications, Ltd.) for her editorial assistance and Su-Chiung Chu for her secretarial assistance. “
“In their letter,1 Nakanuma and Sato provide evidence that peribiliary glands (PBGs) contain cells selleckchem implicated in the origin of intraductal papillary neoplasms of the bile duct. This fits well with the hypothesis that mucin-producing cholangiocarcinomas might arise from biliary tree stem/progenitor cells (BTSCs) located in the PBGs of large intra- and extrahepatic bile ducts.2 BTSCs are associated with mucin-producing cells within the liver and biliary tree.3 Figure 1 shows an example of a mucin-producing intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma morphologically being the malignant counterpart of PBGs. Thus, intraductal papillary neoplasms could represent the preneoplastic lesions preceding the emergence of mucin-producing cholangiocarcinomas, supporting similarities between pancreatic and bile duct neoplasias. In response to injuries, pancreatic duct glands undergo a mucinous metaplasia that might lead to pancreatic cancer4; this could occur also in the biliary tree during pathologic processes with risk factors for cholangiocarcinoma, such as primary sclerosing cholangitis.

He was there front-row center, which wouldn’t be so remarkable except that he was 94 years old and still telling me jokes. After a year of hematology fellowship at Georgetown, I stayed true to my childhood dream and applied for a position BMN 673 molecular weight in clinical practice with a prestigious group of Washington internists. I was deeply disappointed to find that they selected someone else, presumably on the grounds that they needed a cardiologist more than a hematologist. In my disappointment, Rath took me under his wing and encouraged me to stay

at Georgetown with the terse statement, “You can always go into practice.” As further inducement, he doubled my salary from $6,000 to $12,000 a year. Charlie was generous of spirit, but not so generous of LY294002 ic50 money. At Georgetown University Hospital, I was an instructor and then assistant professor of medicine and also head of hematology research. I spent 50% of my time teaching, 50% seeing patients, and the other 50% doing research. I was spread very thin

and my math wasn’t very good either. Two things became apparent to me. First, I was not the triple-threat academician that I was supposed to be and, second, that I enjoyed seeing patients in a hospital setting and I gradually lost my desire to go into private practice. Nonetheless, the pace of my position and the frustration over being unable to fulfill my research responsibilities was getting to me. Then, in 1969, I received another life-changing communication. It was a call from Paul Holland and Paul Schmidt at the NIH Blood Bank informing me that the Australia antigen selleckchem I had studied was now known to be associated with HBV and that they would like me to

return to the NIH to pursue studies of transfusion-associated hepatitis (TAH). I jumped at the opportunity and have never looked back. I was married in 1965 during my hematology fellowship to Barbara Bailey, a woman I had met during my fellowship at the NIH. It was a good marriage, but, sadly, ended after 12 years. However, two joyous events emerged from that marriage: the birth of my son, Mark, now an M.D./Ph.D. embarking on his own research career and the subsequent birth of my daughter, Stacey, currently a teacher in Colorado. My children have been wonderful from day one and are a source of great pride. They have given me four grandchildren, one of whom was born prematurely at the Hep-DART meeting on Kauai, weighing only 1 pound, 15 ounces. Miraculously, he is now age 10 and will soon be attending his third Hep-DART meeting. In 1984, I met a collaborator who has never entered the lab or participated in a study, but who has collaborated intensely in my life. I speak of my current wife, Diane, who has put up with the long hours and anxiety-ridden deadlines incumbent on a research career and who has done so with grace and elegance. She has been my staunchest advocate and has had more faith in me than I have had in myself.

3E). In human control and ADPKD cholangiocytes, OCT inhibited the rates of proliferation by 12.9% and 18.4%, respectively, and PAS by 21.9% and 33.7%, respectively (Fig. 3E). By BrdU assay, OCT and PAS suppressed, respectively, proliferation of: (1) rat control cholangiocytes by 15.5% and 24.4%; (2) PCK cholangiocytes by 25.1% and 32.9%; (3) human control

cholangiocytes by 12.5% and 19.8%; and (4) ADPKD cholangiocytes by 29.8% and 38.5% (Fig. 3F). Importantly, PAS repressed cell proliferation to a higher extent than OCT in rat and human control and cystic cholangiocytes (Fig. 3E,F). Under basal conditions, both control and PCK Caspase inhibitor cysts expanded progressively over time (Fig. 4), although PCK structures grew to a greater extent. The circumferential area of control cysts enlarged by 92.07

± 5.45% compared to a 228.50 ± 25.32% increase in PCK cultures. In response to OCT, the expansion of control and PCK cysts was decreased 1.6 and 2.3-fold, respectively; whereas PAS reduced enlargement of control and PCK cysts by 2.2- and 4.7-fold, respectively. No differences were observed between OCT- or PAS-treated control cysts; however, the suppressive effects of PAS on growth of PCK cystic structures were more noteworthy compared to OCT (Fig. 4). Both somatostatin analogs were well tolerated by PCK rats and Pkd2WS25/- mice. In PCK rats, OCT and PAS reduced, respectively: (1) liver weights by 9% and 16%; (2) kidney weights by 7% and 14%; (3) hepatic cystic areas by 24% and 36%; (4) hepatic fibrotic areas by 10% and 19%; (5) renal cystic areas by 22% and 30%; and (6) renal fibrotic areas by 10% and 19% www.selleckchem.com/products/Y-27632.html (Supporting Table 1; Fig. 5). In Pkd2WS25/- mice, OCT and PAS treatment decreased, respectively: (1) liver weights by 17% and 22%; (2) kidney weights by 16% and 20%; (3) hepatic cystic areas by 22% and 34%; (4) hepatic fibrotic areas by 13% and 25%; (5) renal cystic areas by 19% and 30%; and (6) renal fibrotic areas by 18%

and 25% (Supporting Table 2; Fig. 6). Moreover, PAS decreased hepatic and renal cystic and fibrotic areas in PCK rats (Supporting Table 1; Fig. 5B,D) and Pkd2WS25/- mice (Supporting Table 2; Fig. 6B,D) to a greater extent than OCT. No changes in VEGF serum concentrations were observed in response to either OCT or PAS treatment in PCK rats. Serum levels of IGF1 were not affected by OCT, whereas PAS decreased it by 18% (P < 0.05) compared to control. click here Consistent with in vivo observation, suppressed secretion of IGF1 in the presence of PAS (but not OCT) was found in cultured rat control (by 10.8%; P < 0.03) and PCK (by 21.5%; P < 0.001) cholangiocytes, and human control (by 11.2%; P < 0.03) and ADPKD (by 15.7%; P < 0.01) cholangiocytes (Supporting Fig. 1). Expression of SSTR1, SSTR2, SSTR3, and SSTR5 (i.e., targets of OCT and/or PAS) were detected in cholangiocytes of control and PCK rats, control and Pkd2WS25/- mice, healthy human beings, and patients with PLD by confocal microscopy (Fig. 7A,B) and western blotting (Fig. 7C).

Therefore, we decided to use PBDL for this study. In BDL lobes, F4/80-positive cells were increased. The Ale-lip treatment succeeded in deleting F4/80-positive cells (Fig. 1A). Thus, Ale-lip injection can be utilized as a new tool for Kupffer cell depletion. Inflammatory cytokines mainly produced from Kupffer cells were up-regulated in BDL lobes, whereas the Ale-lip treatment markedly inhibited the production of TNF-α

and IL-1β (Fig. 1B). Kupffer cell-depleted mice showed an increase of RG-7388 injured lesion in BDL lobes and serum ALT level after the surgery (Fig. 1C). Interestingly, 24 hours after common BDL (Supporting Fig. 2) as well as PBDL (Fig. 1C), there were no significant differences in histological liver injury and elevated ALT activities between control and Kupffer cell-depleted mice. These findings indicate that Kupffer cells were not involved in the early stage of liver damage that occurs by BDL, but in the late CFTR activator stage. As previously reported,20 treatment with TNF-α plus GalN strongly induced hepatocyte destruction and massive hemorrhage with apoptotic cells in nonligated lobes of PBDL animals, whereas hemorrhagic damage and hepatocyte apoptosis were blunted in BDL lobes (Supporting Fig. 3A-C). Kupffer cell depletion itself did not induce hepatocyte apoptosis (Supporting Fig. 3D). In Kupffer cell-depleted livers, GalN plus TNF-α treatment induced hemorrhagic liver damage and hepatocyte apoptosis

with the cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), which is the downstream target of caspase-3, both in nonligated and BDL lobes (Fig. 2A-C). In the BDL lobes, proliferation cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) or Ki67-positive hepatocytes were increased with up-regulation of cyclin E expression (Fig. 2D-F), indicating that BDL induces hepatocyte regeneration. In Kupffer cell-depleted livers the expressions of PCNA, Ki67, and

cyclin E were decreased (Fig. 2D-F). Thus, Kupffer cells are important for survival and regeneration of hepatocytes after BDL. Fibrosis was induced in BDL lobes as demonstrated by Sirius red staining, hydroxyproline content, expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and desmin, MCE公司 and messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of collagen-α1(I) and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 (Fig. 3). Kupffer cell-depleted mice showed reduced fibrosis in BDL lobes (Fig. 3). The number and the activation of HSCs were decreased by Kupffer cell depletion as assessed by desmin and α-SMA expression, respectively. These results suggest that the decrease in the fibrogenic response by Kupffer cell depletion is due to a lack of signal from Kupffer cells to activate and proliferate HSCs. To further elucidate the mechanisms by which Kupffer cells contribute to BDL-mediated functional changes in liver injury, survival of hepatocyte, regeneration, and fibrosis, we focused on ASMase. The protein level of ASMase (Supporting Fig.

Such interactions were also found between rollers and resident kestrels (Parejo, Danchin & Avilés, 2005). Additionally, flycatchers are able to learn arbitrary symbols placed on resident tits’ nest sites and use them to make their choice between alternative options (Seppänen & Forsman, 2007). When the number of eggs in tit nests was experimentally manipulated, flycatchers were subsequently more attracted to the symbols associated with the more prolific nests when making their choices

(Forsman & Seppänen, 2011; Seppänen et al., 2011). Moreover, flycatcher females appear to adjust their own clutch size to that of their tit neighbours, thus using surveys from resident birds to gauge the richness of the habitat for raising their own offspring (Forsman, Seppänen & Nykänen, 2011). Attractiveness of settled heterospecific animals was also observed in shrikes. These passerine birds adopt a raptor-like diet but GSI-IX without specific leg adaptations to dismember their prey. They consequently impale their prey to facilitate Metformin concentration handling. Such larders are also used to mark a male’s territory and as an indicator of male quality to conspecifics. These salient cues placed by great grey shrikes are also used by heterospecific red-backed shrikes

as a reliable source of information about habitat profitability (Hromada et al., 2008). In a completely different taxon, Hypochilus thorelli spiders appear to use the presence of 上海皓元 existing webs of Achaearanea tepidariorum as an indicator of site quality as well as a support for their own webs (Hodge & Storfer-Isser, 1997). As opposed to learning about predation threat and suitable food, it is slightly harder to put learning about habitat selection across species boundaries into the context of simple associative mechanisms. In such examples, ‘observers’ do not directly experience a reward such as food, or a negative

stimulus, such as an empty foraging patch or a predator threat. A tentative second-order conditioning explanation could apply, whereby a positive association is formed between a rich habitat and heterospecific species presence, so that when the observer sees a bird select a particular nest site, the positive association is transferred to that particular site. However, such an association between a rich habitat and bird presence does not seem as direct as in mixed-species feeding examples. Instead, it appears that during the previous breeding season, the migrant birds must have surveyed the different potential sites and established a correlation between their quality and heterospecific presence, which would seem to be a remarkable case of latent learning, or indeed ‘deliberate’ reconnaissance. Further research is required to uncover the mechanisms behind this kind of impressive interspecific information use. Special cases of heterospecific social learning occur in the collaboration between humans and domestic animals.