In contrast, hMLH1 and hMSH2 were absent or had extremely low expression at estrogen levels ranging from 20 to 60 pg/mL, but some cell growth still occurred. Therefore, cells dividing in a low-estrogen environment are more likely CB-839 nmr to accumulate genetic errors due to low repair activity and may be at high risk for carcinogenesis. Based on these results, Miyamoto et al.[8] suggested that the incidence of growth-induced genetic errors should be low in young women with high estrogen levels and sufficient repair activity of MMR proteins, making carcinogenesis unlikely. In older women with lower estrogen

but an atrophic endometrium, carcinogenesis would also be unlikely because of the absence of cell growth. However, under perimenopausal R788 clinical trial conditions, the carcinogenic risk would

be increased because sufficient estrogen is present to promote cell division, but MMR activity is low. This intermediate status was defined as the cancer window (Fig. 1). The mismatch repair (MMR) system is responsible for repairing base mismatches that arise during DNA replication. Typical MMR proteins include hMLH1, hMSH2, hPMS2, hMSH3 and hMSH6. Genes encoding these proteins are called MMR genes and aberrations in these genes prevent correct repair of mismatched bases, resulting in DNA strands with different lengths. This phenomenon occurs in microsatellite regions of the human genome and is referred to as microsatellite instability (MSI). Microsatellites or short tandem repeats (STR) are repeating sequences of one to five base pairs of DNA, such as CA and CAG. Some STR

occur in regions encoding phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome ten (PTEN), a lipid phosphatase that is a tumor suppressor gene; TGF-βR2 and IGF2R, which are associated with inhibition of cell proliferation; K-ras, which is involved in cell proliferation; and BAX, which is related to apoptosis induction. Therefore, MSI is implicated in carcinogenesis.[9] Aberrations in MMR genes are involved in carcinogenesis of type I endometrial cancer. These aberrations are caused by epigenetic changes independent of the DNA sequence, that is, gene inactivation by aberrant hypermethylation of promoter regions. Such inactivation of MMR genes permits accumulation of gene mutations and leads to carcinogenesis. 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase In endometrial cancer, carcinogenesis most frequently involves aberrant methylation of hMLH1 and mutation of hMLH1 is detected in 30% of cases. Mutations of hMLH1 are also found in atypical endometrial hyperplasia, which suggests that hMLH1 is implicated in the early stage of carcinogenesis.[10, 11] Muraki et al.[12] reported aberrant hMLH1 hypermethylation in 40.4% of patients with endometrial cancer and found significantly reduced hMLH1 protein levels in these patients (P < 0.01). However, none of the four cancer-related genes were aberrantly methylated in the normal endometrium. MMR genes are also causative genes in Lynch syndrome (hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer).

We recommend TDF/FTC as part of a fully suppressive ART combination should be given to all patients where HBV treatment is deemed necessary (1C).  54. We suggest adefovir or 48 weeks of PEG-IFN are alternative options in patients unwilling or unable to receive TDF/FTC as part of a fully suppressive ART combination but requiring HBV therapy (2C).  55. We suggest PEG-IFN is only used in HBsAg-positive patients with a repeatedly raised ALT, low HBV DNA (<2 × 106 IU/mL), selleck products and minimal fibrosis, irrespective of HBeAg antigen status (2D). Lack of HBV DNA response (reduction to <2000 IU/mL at 12 weeks) should prompt discontinuation. Repeat testing should be performed 3-monthly to observe the presence of seroconversion (2C).

6.5 Antiviral treatment: CD4 count <500 cells/μL (Algorithm 2) 6.5.1 Recommendations  56. We recommend TDF/FTC or TDF/3TC as part of a fully suppressive combination ART regimen be used in those with confirmed or presumed sensitive HBV (1C).  57. We recommend where tenofovir is not currently being given as a component of ART it should

be added or substituted for another agent within the regimen if there is no contraindication (1C).  58. We recommend neither 3TC nor FTC be used as the sole active drug against HBV in ART due to the rapid emergence of HBV resistant to these agents (1B).  59. We recommend 3TC/FTC may be omitted from the antiretroviral regimen and tenofovir be given as the sole anti-HBV active agent if there is clinical or genotypic evidence of 3TC/FTC- resistant HBV or HIV (1D).  60. We recommend Rapamycin that in the presence of wild-type HBV, either FTC or 3TC can be given to patients requiring ART in buy Idelalisib combination with tenofovir (1B). 6.5.2 Good practice points  61. We recommend if patients

on suppressive anti-HBV therapy require a switch in their antiretrovirals due to HIV resistance to tenofovir and/or 3TC/FTC, their active anti-HBV therapy (tenofovir with or without 3TC/FTC) should be continued and suitable anti-HIV agents added.  62. We recommend if tenofovir is contraindicated, entecavir should be used if retaining activity. Entecavir should only be used in addition to a fully suppressive combination ART regimen. 6.5.3 Auditable outcomes Proportion of patients with a CD4 count <500 cells/μL receiving TDF/FTC or TDF/3TC as part of a fully suppressive combination ART regimen Proportion of patients avoiding 3TC or FTC as the sole active drug against HBV in ART 6.6 Antiviral treatment: Acute HBV 6.6.1 Recommendations  63. We recommend individuals with severe/fulminant acute HBV in the context of HIV should be treated with nucleosides active against hepatitis B (1D).  64. We recommend patients with severe/fulminant acute HBV receive ART inclusive of tenofovir and 3TC or FTC, or entecavir given with ART (1D). 6.6.2 Auditable outcome Proportion of patients with severe/fulminant acute HBV who receive ART inclusive of an antiviral active against HBV 7 Hepatitis delta (HDV) 7.1.1 Recommendations  65.

, 2009). Putative

mutants were selected on NA with Km at 50 μg mL−1, and verified by Southern blot. Loss of swimming motility was confirmed in soft agar (0.3%) plates and under the microscope (not shown). MFCs were fabricated as described previously (De la Fuente et al., 2007b). Briefly, the chamber body was constructed with polydimethylsilioxane and consisted of two parallel channels measuring 80 μm wide, 3.7 cm long and 50 μm high, separated by a 50 μm wide polydimethylsilioxane ridge. Chamber bodies were then sandwiched between a cover glass and a supporting glass microscope slide. Teflon tubes were attached to inlet and outlet channels, and media were introduced into the channels using syringes controlled by pumps (Pico Plus, Harvard Apparatus). The chambers were mounted on a Nikon Dabrafenib Ti/U E20L80 microscope (Nikon Co.) using 40 × phase-contrast and differential interference contrast optics. Time-lapse images were recorded using a DS-Qi1Mc digital camera and analyzed using nis elements software (Nikon Co.). The adhesion abilities of bacterial cells were evaluated using a modification of a described procedure (De La Fuente et al., 2007b): (1) cells were introduced from side channels, while the flow in the

main channels was stopped, allowing cells to attach; (2) introduction of cells from the side channels was see more stopped and medium flow in the main channels was resumed at a rate of 0.25 μL min−1 to remove unattached Thymidine kinase cells; and (3) the flow rate in the main channels was gradually increased from 0.25 to 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 μL min−1, each rate being maintained

for one minute. Time-lapse movies were captured during the course of the assay and cells attached to the glass surface were quantified using nis elements software. Each repetition of steps 1–3 was considered a replicate. For each strain, at least three replicates in different locations along the channels were measured. For each flow rate, the amount of cells washed from the field of view was calculated as a function of the total number of cells present at the beginning of the assay. At the end of each flow rate, the number of attached cells was determined by averaging the amount of attached cells in the last three frames of that time period (corresponding to the last 15 s of the corresponding flow rate). Adhesion forces were determined according to De La Fuente et al. (2007b). Biofilm formation was monitored inside the MFCs by maintaining a flow rate of 0.25 μL min−1 in the main channel and capturing images at 30-s intervals for a period of 6–24 h. Swimming and twitching were assessed for all strains inside the MFCs. Twitching motility rates were calculated for six bacterial cells according to De La Fuente et al. (2007a). All experiments were repeated at least three times and data were subjected to the Tukey–HSD test using jmp in v3.2.1 (SAS Institute Inc.). For comparison of adhesion forces, one-way anova were performed using statistix 8.

“
“The polysaccharide capsule of Streptococcus pneumoniae is the main virulence find more factor making the bacterium resistant to phagocytosis. The galU gene of S. pneumoniae encodes a UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase absolutely required

for capsule biosynthesis. In silico analyses indicated that the galU gene is co-transcribed with the gpdA gene, and four putative promoter regions located upstream of gpdA were predicted. One of them behaved as a functional promoter in a promoter reporter system. It is conceivable that the sequence responsible for initiating transcription of gpdA-galU operon is an extended −10 site TATGATA(T/G)AAT. Semi-quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR experiments indicated that galU was expressed mainly in the exponential phase of growth. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a leading human pathogen causing both mucosal (such as otitis media and pneumonia) and systemic diseases (including septicemia and meningitis). To date, 93 different pneumococcal Y27632 capsular types have been described (Henrichsen, 1995; Park et al.,

2007; Bratcher et al., 2010; Calix & Nahm, 2010). This remarkable phenotypic variability appears to be present also at the genetic level (Bentley et al., 2006). Early studies showed that uridine diphosphoglucose (UDP-Glc) is a key component in the GPX6 biosynthetic pathway of pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides containing glucose, galactose, and/or UDP-glucuronic or UDP-galacturonic acids (Mills & Smith, 1965).

At least one of these sugars is a component of every capsular polysaccharide of S. pneumoniae (Kamerling, 2000). The enzyme UTP-Glc-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (UDP-Glc pyrophosphorylase; EC 2.7.7.9) is encoded by the galU gene. This enzyme catalyzes the formation of UDP-Glc, which is the substrate for the synthesis of UDP-glucuronic acid. Also, UDP-Glc is also required for the interconversion of galactose and glucose by way of the Leloir pathway (Frey, 1996). Previously, the galU gene was cloned and overexpressed, and the gene product was biochemically characterized (Mollerach et al., 1998; Bonofiglio et al., 2005). In addition, knockout galU mutants of type 1 and type 3 pneumococci are unable to synthesize a detectable capsular polysaccharide. Southern blot hybridization experiments using DNAs prepared from pneumococcal isolates belonging to different types showed that every strain tested contained a galU homologue (Mollerach et al., 1998). Thus, the UDP-Glc pyrophosphorylase, which is directly involved in the synthesis of the capsular polysaccharide in S. pneumoniae, might represent a suitable target in the search for inhibitors to control the biosynthesis of the main pneumococcal virulence factor.

It was shown that any excess of substrates improves transglycosylation. Trials were conducted to obtain 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridine with an excess of 5-fluorouracil, an excess of thymidine, or equal-molar quantities. Conversion was 38% in 1 h when 1 : 1 molar ratio was evaluated. Using 4 : 1 molar ratio (base / nucleoside), 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridine production was 52% after 1 h. When an excess of thymidine (1 : 4) was used, conversion was 80% (1 h) and productivity was 0.64-fold with respect to the reaction with modified base excess (Table 2).

According to the conversions obtained for 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridine biosynthesis, the specificity of A. salmonicida ATCC 27013 to accept other halogenated pyrimidine bases was evaluated. Conversion was approximately 60% (3 h) in 5-chloro-2′-deoxyuridine biosynthesis using 2′-deoxyuridine, Proteasome inhibitor 2′-deoxycytidine, and thymidine as sugar donors (Table 3). Under the conditions tested, A. salmonicida ATCC 27013 accepted 5-chlorouracil but retained only SB203580 supplier residual activity (< 10%) when 5-bromouracil was used. Productivity of A. salmonicida was lower when 5-chlorouracil instead of 5-fluorouracil was assayed (5.4 and 8.2 mg L−1 min−1, respectively).

Therefore, it can be postulated that steric hindrance because of the difference in atomic radii of halogens can probably reduce reaction conversion. Aeromonas salmonicida ATCC 27013 was immobilized in agar, agarose, and polyacrylamide as previously optimized by Trelles and col. (Trelles et al., 2004). The minimum matrix percentage for

preventing undesirable microorganism release into the reaction medium was assessed, being 3% and 25% the optimal percentage for agarose and polyacrylamide, respectively. Immobilized microorganisms Rolziracetam were assayed in floxuridine biosynthesis. Conversion values within 1 h of reaction were slightly lower than those obtained with free microorganisms (60% and 65% using polyacrylamide and agarose, respectively). It is well known that this difference is related to diffusion restrictions of these matrices. Immobilization increases the biocatalyst stability. In this case, A. salmonicida ATCC 27013 was stable at 4 °C for more than 4 months without losing activity (about 90% retained activity). Besides, this immobilized biocatalyst could be used at least for 30 consecutive reactions (about 90% retained activity). Free microorganisms were stable at 4 °C for only 1 week and could not be reused for more than 10 times. Agarose was selected to perform the preliminary test for bioprocess scale-up. These trials were conducted in a 10 mL batch reactor and results were similar to those obtained at microscale (1 mL). In this report, an efficient one-pot bioprocess is described for the production of 5-fluoro- and 5-chloro-2′-deoxyuridine by transglycosylation using immobilized A. salmonicida 27013 as biocatalysts.

, 1990) and the mallard program (Ashelford et al., 2006). The nucleotide sequences of the clones without chimeric sequences were aligned using muscle (Edgar, 2004). Putative introns observed in the sequences of clones were removed by judging from the alignments. Clones having 97% sequence similarity or higher were treated as a phylotype using dotur (Schloss & Handelsman, 2005). The exon sequences of the phylotypes were realigned with other published sequences including the closest one determined by blast searches (Altschul et al.,

1990). The construction of phylogenetic selleck inhibitor trees and the diversity analysis were performed as described previously (Kato et al., 2009a). The nucleotide sequences of the phylotypes reported in this paper have been deposited in the DDBJ database under accession numbers AB600328–AB600387. The phylotypes detected in the hot water sample were related to cultured (hyper)thermophilic members of Crenarchaeota (Figs 2a, b and 3), i.e. Vulcanisaeta, Caldivirga, Thermoproteus, Acidilobus and Stygiolobus (Zillig et al., 1981; Segerer et al., 1991; Itoh et al., 1999, 2002; Prokofeva et al., 2000) with 97–99% similarity. These members have been isolated from terrestrial hot springs and include thermoacidophiles for which the optimum growth temperatures and pH are 80–90 °C and 2.5–6.8, respectively, as summarized in the previous report (Itoh, 2003). The detection of phylotypes

related to these thermoacidophiles in the Megestrol Acetate hot water sample is consistent with the high-temperature (78 °C) and acidic environment (pH 3.5). One clone (HO78W9A61, AB600380) detected SAHA HDAC mw in the hot water was related to the environmental clone OP-9, which is affiliated with the Nanoarchaeota (Hohn et al., 2002) (94% similarity). We excluded this clone in the construction of the phylogenetic tree and the statistical analysis because of the short length of the sequence (190 bp). Phylotypes affiliated with

Nanoarchaeota have been detected in other hot spring fields (Hohn et al., 2002; Casanueva et al., 2008). All euryarchaeotic phylotypes detected in the mud sample were related to members of the Thermoplasmata, a thermoacidophilic group. In this study, these phylotypes were clustered in four groups: Thermoplasma-related groups I to IV (TRG-I to IV) (Fig. 4). Cultured species related to Thermoplasma and other acidic environmental clones were included in the TRG-I (Fig. 4). The phylotypes in TRG-I, except HO28S9A75, were closely related to a thermoacidophilic archaeon, Thermogymnomonas acidicola, which belongs to a recently reported Thermoplasma-related genus (Itoh et al., 2007) (90–93% similarity). This archaeon, which grows in the range 38–68 °C and at pH 1.8–4.0, was isolated from a solfataric soil in Hakone, Japan (Itoh et al., 2007). In contrast, TRG-II, III and IV include no cultured species (Fig. 4).

Phagocytosis Selleck CH5424802 receptors such as CD14, Fcγ receptor II and the mannose receptor can recognize a wide range of bacteria, and ligand binding to this receptor can trigger cytokine production (Shibata et al., 1997; Yamamoto et al., 1997). As IL-12 is

produced by macrophages, it is not surprising that it is not blocked by TLR2 antibodies, but considerably affected by blocking phagocytosis. However, the fact that blocking phagocytosis blocked TNFα and IL-10 production is probably because TLR2 are recruited to phagosomes and are active after internalization. This has been observed in human DCs and macrophages (Underhill & Ozinsky, 2002). Intracellular nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors such as NOD1 and NOD2 recognize the muramyl dipeptide of gram-positive bacteria and may play a role as well. Zeuthen et al. (2008), using DC from NOD2 receptor and TLR2 knockout mice, showed that these receptors had different effects on the production of different cytokines in DCs stimulated with lactobacilli.

The differential cytokine production of different strains and preparations of lactobacilli may indicate that these bacteria/preparations may be suited for different therapeutic interventions. An ability to secrete IL-12 may be of benefit in allergic diseases, as IL-12 can reduce serum IgE levels in mice (Sashihara et al., 2006), while IL-10 can aid in tolerization of exogenous antigens. selleck products Thus, live or lyophilized L. bulgaricus that produces IL-12 and IL-10 or lyophilized L. casei would be considerably beneficial in this context while lyophilized L. rhamnosus with its ability to induce IL-10 secretion, but low induction of IL-12, may be beneficial in the reduction of inflammation. The ability of these strains, whether live or lyophilized, to induce TNFα may explain their antitumor properties. The order of efficacy of the three strains for cancer therapy would be live L. casei>L. rhamnosus>L. bulgaricus. This needs to be confirmed in animal

cancer models. This work was made possible by a grant from the Academic Research Fund of National University of Singapore. We would like to thank Dr Linda Wang for Metformin manufacturer her advice on the TLR blocking experiments. “
“The appendices can be found on the BHIVA website (http://www.bhiva.org/TreatmentofHIV1_2012.aspx) Appendix 1 Summary modified GRADE system Appendix 2 Literature search A2.1 Questions and PICO criteria A2.2 Search protocols Appendix 3 GRADE tables A3.1 Choice of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor backbone A3.2 Choice of third agent A3.3 Protease inhibitor monotherapy “
“There are several reported cases of vertically infected children presenting with advanced HIV infection in the UK. The children of women with HIV infection are at increased risk of being infected. There are few data available on the number of such children that are yet to be tested for HIV.

An enhanced muscle multiple innervation was found in running rats that was fully reversed to control values blocking Trk receptors or interrupting the running activity. An increase in muscle multiple innervation was also found in sedentary rats treated with a selective TrkB receptor agonist. The expression of TrkB receptors by intramuscular axons was demonstrated, and increased muscle expression

of BDNF was found in running animals. The increase in muscle multiple innervation was consistent with the faster muscle re-innervation that we found in running animals. We conclude that, when regenerating axons contact muscle cells, muscle activity progressively increases modulating BDNF and possibly other growth factors, which in turn, acting via Trk receptors, induce axon sprouting to re-innervate skeletal muscle. “
“The neuronal Per-Arnt-Sim domain protein 4 (Npas4) is an important transcriptional regulator Saracatinib manufacturer of synaptic plasticity and cognition. The present study

characterises the in vivo neuroanatomical expression pattern of the Npas4 protein in a rat model of focal cerebral ischemia. Animals were subjected to unilateral middle cerebral artery occlusion for 2 h, after which the spatiotemporal and neuronal profiles of Npas4 protein expression were analysed by immunohistochemistry at different time points post-reperfusion. Focal cerebral ischemia induced an early, transient and robust upregulation of Npas4 in a brain region-dependent manner involving Nutlin-3a predominantly principal neurons. Interestingly, we observed a unique differential induction of Npas4 protein expression in corticolimbic regions of the rat brain that are critically linked to cognition and emotion. These findings suggest that stroke-induced Npas4 upregulation may be involved in a transcriptional

regulatory program within the corticolimbic circuitry following an ischemic insult. “
“Institute of Cell Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia An association of the detrimental Aspartate effect of monocular deprivation on binocular vision with reduced reliability of neuronal responses in the primary visual cortex has been shown on randomly presented binocular stimuli [V. Vorobyov et al. (2007) Eur J Neurosci. 26(12), 3553–3563]. To examine this effect on biologically relevant signals, binocular gratings of varying relative phase disparity were presented in sequential order, simulating motion, to 55 cats with various types of daily visual experience. During sequential stimulation, the proportions of ‘unstable’ cells (with phase differences exceeding 22.5 ° between peak binocular responses in two consecutive trials) were similar in cats with exclusively binocular experience and with short periods of daily monocular vision (≤ 3.25 h), in mixed binocular–monocular conditions.

An enhanced muscle multiple innervation was found in running rats that was fully reversed to control values blocking Trk receptors or interrupting the running activity. An increase in muscle multiple innervation was also found in sedentary rats treated with a selective TrkB receptor agonist. The expression of TrkB receptors by intramuscular axons was demonstrated, and increased muscle expression

of BDNF was found in running animals. The increase in muscle multiple innervation was consistent with the faster muscle re-innervation that we found in running animals. We conclude that, when regenerating axons contact muscle cells, muscle activity progressively increases modulating BDNF and possibly other growth factors, which in turn, acting via Trk receptors, induce axon sprouting to re-innervate skeletal muscle. “
“The neuronal Per-Arnt-Sim domain protein 4 (Npas4) is an important transcriptional regulator Kinase Inhibitor Library order of synaptic plasticity and cognition. The present study

characterises the in vivo neuroanatomical expression pattern of the Npas4 protein in a rat model of focal cerebral ischemia. Animals were subjected to unilateral middle cerebral artery occlusion for 2 h, after which the spatiotemporal and neuronal profiles of Npas4 protein expression were analysed by immunohistochemistry at different time points post-reperfusion. Focal cerebral ischemia induced an early, transient and robust upregulation of Npas4 in a brain region-dependent manner involving learn more predominantly principal neurons. Interestingly, we observed a unique differential induction of Npas4 protein expression in corticolimbic regions of the rat brain that are critically linked to cognition and emotion. These findings suggest that stroke-induced Npas4 upregulation may be involved in a transcriptional

regulatory program within the corticolimbic circuitry following an ischemic insult. “
“Institute of Cell Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia An association of the detrimental MYO10 effect of monocular deprivation on binocular vision with reduced reliability of neuronal responses in the primary visual cortex has been shown on randomly presented binocular stimuli [V. Vorobyov et al. (2007) Eur J Neurosci. 26(12), 3553–3563]. To examine this effect on biologically relevant signals, binocular gratings of varying relative phase disparity were presented in sequential order, simulating motion, to 55 cats with various types of daily visual experience. During sequential stimulation, the proportions of ‘unstable’ cells (with phase differences exceeding 22.5 ° between peak binocular responses in two consecutive trials) were similar in cats with exclusively binocular experience and with short periods of daily monocular vision (≤ 3.25 h), in mixed binocular–monocular conditions.

gov, number NCT01232205).

Results:  There were 110 women enrolled in the study, randomly assigned to the supplementation (n = 52) and control group (n = 58). The overall rate of pre-eclampsia was 8.7% (nine subjects). There were significant differences (P = 0.034) between the supplementation and control group in the incidence of pre-eclampsia (2.0% [one case] and 14.5% [eight cases], respectively) and mRNA level of superoxide-dismutase, heme oxygenase-1, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1, endoglin and placental growth factor after supplementation. Conclusion:  Supplementation find more of women with low antioxidant status with micronutrients containing antioxidants during early gestation might reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia. “
“Background:  Environmental pollution with radioiodine (iodine-131, 131I) occurred after an accident at the Fukushima nuclear power plant (FNP) on March 11, 2011, in Japan. Whether environmental pollution with 131I can contaminate human breast milk has not been documented. Methods:  The 131I content was determined in 126 breast milk samples from 119 volunteer lactating women residing within 250 km of the FNP, between April 24 and May 31, 2011. The degree of environmental

pollution was determined based on the data released by the Japanese government. Results:  An 131I content of 210 Bq/kg 3-MA price in the tap water in Tokyo, which is located 230 km south of the FNP, on March 22 and of 3500 Bq/kg in spinach sampled in a city located 140 km southwest of the FNP on March 19 decreased

over time to <21 Bq/kg on March 27 and 12 Bq/kg on April 26, respectively. Casein kinase 1 Seven of the 23 women who were tested in April secreted a detectable level of 131I in their breast milk. The concentrations of 131I in the breast milk of the seven women were 2.3 Bq/kg (on April 24), and 2.2, 2.3, 2.3, 3.0, 3.5 and 8.0 (on April 25); the concentrations of 131I in the tap water available for these seven women at the same time were estimated to be <1.3 Bq/kg. None of the remaining 96 women tested in May exhibited a detectable concentration of 131I in their breast milk samples. Conclusions:  The contamination of breast milk with 131I can occur even when only mild environmental 131I pollution is present. On March 11, 2011, an earthquake (magnitude, 9.0) triggered a large tsunami more than 16.0 m high, which then hit the Fukushima nuclear power plant (FNP) in Japan (Fig. 1). Subsequently, the FNP explosively dispersed a massive radioactive plume on the morning of March 15, 2011. The radioactive cloud was carried by the wind, inducing widespread pollution with 131I and other radioactive species. Stable iodine ingested during the consumption of daily meals is secreted in breast milk.