Such microorganisms have adapted their vital cellular processes to thrive in cold environments [4]. They make essential CB-839 mw contributions to nutrient recycling and organic matter mineralization, via a special class of extracellular enzymes known as “cold-adapted” or “cold-active” enzymes [5]. Because these

enzymes have a higher catalytic efficiency than their mesophilic counterparts at temperatures below 20°C and display unusual substrate specificities, they are attractive candidates for industrial processes requiring high enzymatic activity at low temperatures. Cold-adapted enzymes include amylase, cellulase, invertase, inulinase, protease, lipase and isomerase, which are used in the food, biofuel KPT 330 and detergent industries [6]. Largely

because of their potential in biotechnological applications, cold-adapted microorganisms have become increasingly studied in recent years, yet remain poorly understood. Of the microorganisms most isolated and studied from cold environments, the majority are bacteria, while yeasts constitute a minor proportion [1]. Antarctica is considered the coldest and driest terrestrial habitat on Earth. It is covered almost totally with ice and snow, and receives high levels of solar radiation [7]. The Sub-Antarctic region, including the Shetland South Archipelago, has warmer temperatures, the soils close to the sea are free of snow/ice and receive significant quantities of organic material from marine animals; however, they are subject to continuous and rapid free-thaw cycles, which are stressful and selleck chemical restrictive to life [8]. Although the first report of Antarctic yeasts was

published 50 years ago [9] current reports enough have focused on cold-tolerant Bacteria and Archaea, with yeasts receiving less attention. Yeasts dwelling in Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic maritime and terrestrial habitats belong mainly to the Cryptococcus, Mrakia, Candida and Rhodotorula genera [10–12]. In a recent work, 43 % of Antarctic yeast isolates were assigned to undescribed species [13], reflecting the lack of knowledge regarding cultivable yeasts that colonize the Antarctic soils. Yet these organisms constitute a valuable resource for ecological and applied studies. This work describes the isolation of yeasts from terrestrial habitats of King George Island, the major island of the Shetland South archipelago. The yeast isolates were characterized physiologically and identified at the molecular level using the D1/D2 and ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 regions of rDNA. In addition, the ability of the yeasts to degrade simple or complex carbon sources was evaluated by analyzing their extracellular hydrolytic enzyme activities. Characterizing these enzyme activities may enhance the potential of the yeasts in industrial applications.

RNA was analyzed by semi-quantitative reverse-transcription PCR. PCR products were analyzed on 1.5% agarose Dactolisib gels, stained with ethidium bromide and subsequently visualized. To confirm equal loading, PCR for 16S rRNA was LOXO-101 molecular weight performed in parallel. Ctrl indicates control reactions with no cDNA templates. Because lactoferrin rather than transferrin is the primary carrier of iron on mucosal surfaces and lactoferrin binding proteins are thought to be important virulence factors in some gram-negative bacteria [28], we investigated whether cold shock affects the expression

of these genes. As shown in Figure 2, cold shock increased the mRNA level of lbpB and lbpA genes in strain O35E after 3 h of incubation at 26°C (Figure 2C). Furthermore, cold shock increased the transcriptional level of lbpA and lbpB of other clinical isolates indicating that this effect is a general characteristic of M. catarrhalis (Figure 2D). Enhanced binding of transferrin and lactoferrin on the surface of M. catarrhalis induced by cold shock Because a temperature drop from 37°C to 26°C induces an increase in the copy numbers of genes involved in iron Combretastatin A4 mw acquisition, we investigated whether it also affects the binding

to human transferrin and lactoferrin. Strain O35E and its TbpB-deficient mutant were exposed to 26°C or 37°C and evaluated for their ability to bind transferrin. Binding to transferrin was increased when bacteria were exposed to 26°C (Figure 3A and 3B). The absence of TbpB reduced binding to transferrin, indicating that TbpB is required for maximum binding of transferrin on the surface of cold shock-induced M. catarrhalis. Figure 3 Increase in the binding of transferrin on the surface of M. catarrhalis as a result of cold shock. A, strain O35E and its isogenic mutant O35E.tbpB exposed to 26°C or 37°C for 3 h were incubated with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated transferrin

(0.1 μg/mL) and flow cytometry analysis was performed. Shown are representative flow cytometry profiles of strain O35E and O35E.tbpB after exposure Methisazone at 26°C (gray) or at 37°C (black), which demonstrate that TbpB is required for maximum binding of transferrin on the surface of cold shock-induced Moraxella catarrhalis. The dotted line represents the negative control (bacteria only). The mean fluorescence intensity ± 1 standard deviation for three experiments performed is shown in panel B. *, P< 0.05 for 26°C versus 37°C (one-way analysis of variance). Binding to lactoferrin in a whole-cell solid-phase binding assay was significantly increased when bacteria were exposed to 26°C, in comparison with exposure to 37°C (Figure 4A). The surface binding of human salivary and milk lactoferrin (sLf and Lf, respectively) was further quantitated using flow cytometry, resulting in a clear shift of fluorescence intensity for M. catarrhalis exposed at 26°C (Figure 4B).

YW participated in the induction of the phage. JW carried out the PCR amplification and DNA sequencing. PL participated in the phage induction and infection. YW and PD participated in the sequence alignment and genome annotation. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background The genus Cronobacter, member of the family Enterobacteriaceae, comprises seven species – C. sakazakii, C. turicensis, C. malonaticus, C. muytjensii,

C. dublinensis, C. universalis and C. condimenti[1, GW786034 2]. They are opportunistic pathogens that can cause septicaemia and infections of the central nervous system primarily in premature, low-birth weight and/or immune-compromised neonates [3]. Most outbreaks have been reported CCI-779 research buy in neonatal intensive care units where the sources of infection have been traced to

Cronobacter spp. contaminated, reconstituted powdered infant formula (PIF) and/or feeding equipment. As a foodborne pathogen causing systemic infections, Cronobacter spp. must cross the gastrointestinal barrier and, following their tropism for the central nervous system, translocate to and cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB). In that context, it is expected that Cronobacter spp. express virulence factors that help in colonization and invasion of mucosal cells [4] as well as effectors that confer the ability of Cronobacter spp. to overcome the mechanisms of killing by serum components and/or the human complement system [5, 6]. Microbes that cause invasive infections have evolved strategies to protect themselves against the bactericidal action of the serum/complement. Structures of the bacterial cell surface, such as capsules, LPS and selleck inhibitor outer-membrane proteins have been identified as being responsible for the complement resistance of bacteria [6, 7]. For Cronobacter spp. it has been shown, that the outer membrane protein Omp A contributes significantly to the survival of the bacteria in the blood [8]. In a more recent study an outer membrane protease

Cpa has been identified as a factor that activates plasminogen, thus mediating serum resistance in C. sakazakii[9]. However, it has been demonstrated, that there is a considerable degree of variation among Cronobacter spp. isolates with respect to their ability to resist serum complement [10]. In a pilot check details study a set of Cronobacter isolates (all species, subspecies) from various origins (clinical, environment, milk powder) was tested for their capacity to survive in human blood and the clinical isolate Cronobacter sakazakii ES5 was identified as the most tolerant strain (i.e. ≤ 2 log reduction during incubation in 50% human pooled serum for 120 min) among the Cronobacter sakazakii isolates tested (data not shown). This strain was selected for further experiments aiming for the identification and analysis of genes involved in this feature. Results and discussion Identification of genes involved in modified serum tolerance in C.

25, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 ng/mL; AFB2 0.06, 0.125, 0.25, 1.25, 1.875, 2.50; AFG1 0.25, Forskolin cell line 0.50, 1.0, 5.0, 7.6, 10.0 ng/mL; AFG2 0.06, 0.125, 0.25, 1.25, 1.875, 2.50; ACP 5, 10, 20, 100, 150, 200 ng/mL). The R2 varied between 0.94 and 0.994, depending on the toxin. The quantification limits were 0.1 ng/mL for AFB1, 0.04 for AFB2, 0.10 for AFG1, 0.02 for AFG2 and 0.2 for CPA. Analyses were performed on an ACQUITY UPLC™ separation system

coupled with a Quattro Premier™ XE tandem quadrupole mass spectrometer (Waters, Manchester, UK). The software MassLynx version 4.1 with application manager software QuanLynx (Waters) was employed for instrument control and data analysis. Chromatographic separation of toxins was conducted using an ACQUITY UPLC BEH C18 (1.7 μm, 2.1 × 100 mm; Waters). Elution was performed using the gradient: mobile phase A (H2O + 0.2% formic acid) and mobile phase B (acetonitrile + 0.2% formic acid): 0–1 min (10% B); 10 min (50% B); 10.5 min (85% B); 11 min (10% B); and 12 min (10% B). Flow rate was set at 0.4 mL/min, with a column temperature of 40ºC

and total run time of 12 min. A full loop injection mode was employed, with an injection volume of 10 μL. The mass spectrometer was operated in mode with electronspray-ionization (ESI) source. Operating conditions were optimized as follows: capillary voltage, 3.5 kV (positive mode); ion source temperature, 120°C; desolvation

temperature, 450°C; cone gas flow, 50 L/h; desolvation gas flow, buy Enzalutamide 700 L/h (nitrogen gas in both cases); and collision gas flow, 0.15 mL/min (argon gas). Total DNA extraction Cultures for each strain were grown on Czapek Yeast Autolysate agar (CYA) [46] for seven days at 25°C. Mycelial discs were subcultured into 150 mL of CYA liquid media and incubated for a further three days at 25°C, with agitation Progesterone at 120 rev min−1. Mycelia were harvested by washing under sterile distilled water, vacuum Pictilisib filtration and freeze drying. Genomic DNA was extracted from 50 mg samples of macerated mycelia, as well as from naturally contaminated Brazil nut material, according to Raeder and Broda [48]. DNA was electrophoresed in 1% agarose gels at 5 V cm−1 in the presence of ethidium bromide (1 μg mL−1), with Low DNA Mass ladder® (Invitrogen) employed for quantification under UV at 254 nm. Molecular-based identification For all the isolates characterized in this study, a fragment of each of the rDNA ITS1–5.8S–ITS2 region, the β-tubulin and calmodulin genes were amplified using the universal primers ITS5/ITS4 [49], T1/T22 [23], and cmd5/cmd6 [50], respectively. Each PCR reaction contained 10 ng of template DNA, 0.4 μM of each primer, 200 μM dNTPs, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 1.0 U Taq DNA polymerase and 1× IB Taq polymerase buffer (Phoneutria, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil).

8% and a DCR of 52.8%. Median PFS and OS were 3.8 months and 6.2 months, respectively. To our knowledge, this is one of the largest series presented so far with second-line chemotherapy combination in non-Asian patients. In the second-line setting, only two recent studies exploring the benefit of palliative chemotherapy were presented in full text. The Arbeitsgemeinschaft Internistische Onkologie

(AIO) conducted in Germany analyzed single agent 4SC-202 price irinotecan (250 mg/m2 every 3 weeks, increased to 350 mg/m2 after the first cycle depending on toxicity) versus BSC [12]. Primary endpoint was OS. Even though the hazard ratio for death was 0.48 (95% CI 0.25–0.92), results must be interpreted with caution. Only

40 patients of the preplanned 120 entered the study, which closed prematurely due to poor accrual. Regarding efficacy, no objective tumor responses were documented, and disease stabilization for at least 6 weeks was reported in 53% of patients. We are aware of the intrinsic limitations of both retrospective studies and indirect comparisons. In our study, patient characteristics were similar, with the exception that in the AIO study none of the patients allocated in the irinotecan arm received docetaxel in first-line. However, even though the DCR was similar (52.8% vs 53%), we reported an ORR of 22.8%. Apparently, FOLFIRI compares favorably when considering PFS (3.8 months oxyclozanide vs 2.5 months)

and OS (6.2 months vs 4.0 months). check details Surprisingly, FOLFIRI seemed to be better tolerated than irinotecan monotherapy (G3-4 diarrhea 14.4% vs 26%, neutropenic fever 4% vs 16%), probably because of the lower irinotecan cumulative dose and the different schedule. In the second phase III trial, 202 Korean patients were randomized in a 2:1 fashion to receive either chemotherapy, consisting in biweekly irinotecan 150 mg/m2 or docetaxel 60 mg/m2 every 3 weeks at the physician’s discretion, or BSC [13]. Docetaxel-containing chemotherapy was administered only in the 3% of patients. The intention to treat analysis showed an increase in OS with chemotherapy (5.3 months vs 3.8 months) with a HR of 0.657 (95% CI: 0.485-0.891, P = 0.007). No differences were seen in correlation with the type of chemotherapeutic agent, thus complementing the results from the Japanese phase III WJOG4007 study (reported only in abstract form) and from an European, randomized, three-arm phase II study which also evaluated a liposomal nanocarrier BAY 80-6946 in vivo formulation of irinotecan [19, 20]. Even though these results have to be considered as a major step forward in the management of gastric cancer, we believe they cannot be broadly generalized. It is known that the topographic distribution (distal vs proximal), pathological features (intestinal vs diffuse) and, even more importantly, survival outcome differ between Asian and Western patients [14, 21, 22].

Therefore, even if it allows the identification

of the target gene for mutational analysis, IHC “sometimes” suffers from technical limitations and should be performed in combination with MSI analysis or afterwards. Both techniques, IHC and MSI analysis, require a OSI-027 molecular weight pathology laboratory and interpretation by experts. In clinical practice, we shall consider a cost effective algorithm and given the similar costs of the two methods the choice between them will depend on sensitivity and specificity of the test and on the local expertise. Our data suggest that Microsatellite instability analysis has a higher diagnostic accuracy than immunohistochemistry, therefore it should be worthwhile to perform it first and consider IHC staining only in the MSI-H selected cases. Conclusions In conclusion, we can state that if we are dealing with an early-onset CRC patient, with left sided CRC and without family history,

a diagnosis of LS is highly unlikely. We could consider this subset of patients “at very low risk” for Lynch syndrome and can use the two simple criteria, family history and CRC site, as a pre-screening tool to evaluate whether or not patients should undergo tissue molecular screening. This approach will allow the physician to reduce unnecessary Selleck Anlotinib tests in the subset of patients “at very low risk for LS”. In the few cases of suspected LS (right sided CRC and/or Amsterdam Criteria), a reasonable approach could be to perform MSI analysis first and consider IHC staining only in the MSI-H patients. Further studies are surely needed to clarify the carcinogenesis mechanism in the increasing number of cases of early onset CRC without LS. Authors’ information Dr Vittoria Stigliano is the director of the Hereditary CRC Clinic of Regina Elena National Cancer Institute. Acknowledgments Thanks to Mrs. Tania Merlino for revising the English text. Thanks to LILT (Lega Italiana per la Lotta contro i Tumori) for supporting the study during its first year. Financial

support: from 2007 to 2009, the study was supported by LILT (Lega Italiana per la Lotta contro i Tumori). References 1. Vasen HF, Mecklin NADPH-cytochrome-c2 reductase JP, Khan PM, et al.: The international collaborative group on hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (ICG-HNPCC). Dis Colon Rectum 1991, 34:424–425.Caspase Inhibitor VI ic50 PubMedCrossRef 2. Vasen HF, Watson P, Mecklin JP, et al.: New clinical criteria for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC, lynch syndrome) proposed by the international collaborative group on HNPCC. Gastroenterology 1999, 116:1453–1456.PubMedCrossRef 3. Lynch HT, de la Chapelle A: Hereditary colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2003, 348:919–932.PubMedCrossRef 4. Jasperson KW, Tuohy TM, Neklason DW, et al.: Hereditary and familial colon cancer. Gastroenterology 2010,138(6):2044–2058.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef 5. Barrow E, Alduaij W, Robinson L, et al.

55%) out of 720 soil samples collected in endemic areas of coccidioidomycosis in California (USA) [12]. The molecular identification of Coccidioides spp. in environmental samples depends on several factors, especially the sampling site, storage conditions, processing techniques, DNA extraction methods, and adequate choice of the genetic target. There is a growing need in the knowledge of the global geographical distribution of Coccidioides spp., their focal distribution in endemic

areas and their genetic diversity in the environment. In fact the development of efficient molecular PI3K inhibitor tool for the environmental identification of Coccidioides spp. is a continuous challenge in order to comprehend the ecology and biogeography of this important pathogen. The present study aimed to detect Coccidioides spp. in soil samples, related to small outbreaks of CM, by culture

and molecular methods. Methods The study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the Center for Biological Evaluation and Care of Research Animals at Fiocruz, no. P.0173-03 (COBEA at FIOCRUZ). Environmental soil sampling Twenty-four soil samples were collected from two different sites suspected to be contaminated by C. posadasii in ISRIB research buy the counties of Caridade do Piauí (7°43’59”S, 40°59’23”W) and Elesbão Veloso (6°12’07”S, 42°08’25”W), situated 447 km and 156 km, respectively, from Teresina, the Interleukin-3 receptor capital of the state of Piauí, in the northeast region of Brazil, which includes a vast Epigenetics inhibitor semi-arid area. Soil samples were collected, in both sites, in burrows that were dug by the hunters who presented acute respiratory CM 9 to 14 days

after the risk activity. Ten soil samples were collected in Elesbão Veloso (EV1-EV10) and 14 were collected in Caridade do Piauí (CP01, CP07, CP09 and CP12-CP22). The samples were placed into 100 mL sterile bags to be processed in Rio de Janeiro, at the Mycology Laboratory of IPEC/FIOCRUZ, according to both protocols: 1) animal inoculation in mice and 2) molecular detection. All soil samples were kept at room temperature (ranging from 20 to 28°C) till the arrival at FIOCRUZ in Rio de Janeiro. As negative soil controls, eight environmental samples were collected in the savanna of central Brazil: four in Goiânia (LL 2611, 19 261101, V 2611 e C 261101) and four in Brasília (DF21, DF22, DF23 e DF24). Animal inoculation The soil samples were processed and analyzed according to the classical technique described by Stewart & Meyer (1932), modified as follows: samples were weighed, and 1 g was mixed in 50 mL of 0.9% sterile saline with chloramphenicol (500 mg/L). Each suspension was vortexed and allowed to settle for 30 minutes at room temperature (25°C). The supernatant was aspirated, and 1 mL was inoculated intraperitoneally into four albino Swiss mice weighing 18-20 g. One control animal was used for each soil sample [10].

The variation in the bandgap is due to the TiO2 agglomerates that have formed, as already mentioned, and which will be dealt with in more detail hereafter. Figure 1 UV-vis spectra of the Ti-KIT-6 (calcined, Si/Ti = 200, 100, and 50 ratios) materials. The TEM analysis pointed out a mesoporous structure in the KIT-6 material and isolated Ti dispersion within the KIT-6 structure. Figure 2a shows an ordered array of selleck chemicals llc mesopores, which indicates the successful formation of the KIT-6 structure, where the centers of two adjacent

pores are about 10 nm apart; a pore diameter of 6 nm can also be observed. This finding concerning APD is also in agreement with the result Crizotinib in vitro obtained from N2 sorption shown in Table 1 and that reported in the literature [9]. The TEM images of Ti-KIT-6 (Si/Ti ratios of 200, 100, and 50) are shown in Figure 2b,c,d. As shown in Figure 2b, SB273005 molecular weight Ti-KIT-6 (200) shows a uniform Ti dispersion with hardly any Ti agglomeration, which indicates the preserved structure of the support material, as is confirmed by the mesoporous channels of KIT-6. Ti-KIT-6 (100) has shown a similar trend to Ti-KIT-6 (200).

A good dispersion of isolated Ti and mesopore structure preservation can be observed (Figure 2c). However, it can also be observed that the mesopore structure of KIT-6 is partially collapsed/damaged in Ti-KIT-6 (50) (see the right corner in Figure 2d), due to the higher Ti content than for the other two ratios. Figure 3, in which Ti dispersion and partial collapse of the mesopores of KIT-6 after Ti anchoring (Si/Ti = 50) is obvious, demonstrates this effect more clearly. However, despite the Ti isolated species being dispersed on the

KIT-6 support material, some Ti-O-Ti or TiO2 agglomerates that were not observed in Ti-KIT-6 (200 and 100), but only in Ti-KIT-6 (50), have also been detected. This is due to the increased Ti which is not uniformly Orotidine 5′-phosphate decarboxylase dispersed, and either forms Ti-O-Ti agglomerates or produces TiO2 due to the moisture. Figure 2 TEM images. (a) KIT-6 (calcined), (b) Ti-KIT-6 (calcined, Si/Ti = 200), (c) Ti-KIT-6 (calcined, Si/Ti = 100), and (d) Ti-KIT-6 (calcined, Si/Ti = 50). The blue arrow shows the preserved meso-structure. The red arrow indicates the partial collapse of the mesoporous structure. Figure 3 TEM image of Ti-KIT-6 (calcined, Si/Ti = 50). The image shows an overall view of the Ti distribution and TiO2 formation. The blue arrow shows the preserved meso-structure. The red arrow indicates the partial collapse of the mesoporous structure. The FT-IR spectra of the KIT-6 and Ti-KIT-6 (200, 100, and 50) materials are shown in Figure 4. The bands that appeared at 498 and 1,268 cm−1 in the IR spectra for KIT-6 represent Si-O-Si [12]; the band at 1,631 cm−1 is due to the OH from the water occluded in the KIT-6 pores, whereas the band at 961 cm−1 is due to Si-OH.

However, the role of MRP2 in the clinical course of

BA patients has not been elucidated. The present study was designed to investigate the relationship between hepatic MRP2 expression and the clinical course of BA patients. In particular, the role of MRP2 in clearance of jaundice after hepatoportoenterostomy was studied. Furthermore, we assessed the association between buy Pictilisib expression levels of MRP2 and nuclear transporters, which are involved in the transcriptional regulation of MRP2. Results Clinical background The clinical parameters of the three groups of patients (BA with jaundice, BA without jaundice, and controls) are shown in Table 1. Age at learn more sampling of the jaundice and jaundice-free group were (mean ± SEM) 70.6 ± 8.7 GSK461364 price and 76.8 ± 11.4 days respectively (p = 0.619). Five of 11 BA patients underwent liver transplantation during a follow-up of 8.5 ± 1.2 years. There was no difference of age at sampling between those who survived without transplantation and those who survived

with transplantation (p = 0.366). Native liver survival differ significantly between the jaundice and jaundice-free groups (p = 0.010) (Figure 1). Table 1 Clinical parameters in the jaundice, jaundice-free, and control groups   Jaundice Jaundice-free Control   n = 9 n = 5 n = 13 Age at sampling (days)       Serum level of total bilirubin (mg/dl) 70.6 ± 8.7 76.8 ± 11.4 852.1 ± 101.3    Before sampling 10.7 ± 1.3 7.7 ± 2.5 0.7 ± 0.1    1 month after sampling 6.4 ± 1.0 3.1 ± 1.1 0.5 ± 0.0    3 months after sampling 4.6 ± 1.5* 0.8 ± 0.2 0.5 ± 0.1 *Except for 3 samples, from patients that underwent hepatoportoenterostomy followed by a secondary surgical procedure within 3 months. Figure 1 Native liver survival of jaundice and jaundice-free group in BA patients. Native liver survival differ significantly between the jaundice and jaundice-free groups (p = 0.010). Hepatic expression of MRP2 and nuclear receptors No significant difference in MRP2 expression level was observed between BA and control patients (2.4 × 10-4 ± 3.1 × 10-5 vs 3.7 × 10-4 ± 6.0 × 10-5, p = 0.079) (Figure 2).

There was no correlation between MRP2 expression and age at time of surgery in the BA (rs = 0.503, p = 0.067) or control group Neratinib supplier (rs = 0.514, p = 0.073). MRP2 expression levels in the jaundice and jaundice-free group were 2.0 × 10-4 ± 2.9 × 10-5 and 3.1 × 10-4 ± 6.2 × 10-5 respectively (p = 0.094) (Figure 3). There was no difference of MRP2 expression between those who survived without transplantation and those who survived with transplantation (p = 0.078). The levels of GAPDH expression were not different between BA patients and controls, between jaundice and jaundice-free group in BA patients, and between those who survived without transplantation and those who survived with transplantation or died. Figure 2 Hepatic MRP2 expression level of BA patients and controls. MRP2 expression level did not differ significantly between the BA and control groups (2.

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M, Livermore DM: In vitro activity of retapamulin against Staphylococcus aureus isolates resistant to fusidic acid and mupirocin. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008,62(4):766–768.PubMedCrossRef 11. Osterlund A, Kahlmeter G, Haeggman S, Olsson-Liljequist B: Staphylococcus aureus resistant to fusidic acid among Swedish children: a follow-up study. Scand J Infect Dis 2006,38(5):334–334.PubMedCrossRef 12. Nagaev I, Bjorkman J, Andersson DI, Hughes D: Biological cost and compensatory evolution in fusidic acid-resistant Staphylococcus aureus . Mol Microbiol 2001,40(2):433–439.PubMedCrossRef 13. Turnidge J, Collignon P: Resistance to fusidic acid. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1999,12(Suppl 2):S35–44.PubMedCrossRef Autophagy activator 14. Norstrom T, Lannergard J, Hughes D: Genetic and phenotypic identification of fusidic acid-resistant mutants with the small-colony-variant phenotype in Staphylococcus aureus . Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007,51(12):4438–4446.PubMedCrossRef 15. Lannergard J, Norstrom T, Hughes D: Genetic determinants of resistance to fusidic acid among clinical bacteremia isolates of Staphylococcus aureus . Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009,53(5):2059–2065.PubMedCrossRef 16. O’Brien FG, Price C, Grubb WB, Gustafson JE: Genetic characterization of the fusidic acid and cadmium resistance determinants of Staphylococcus aureus plasmid pUB101. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002,50(3):313–321.PubMedCrossRef 17.